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Ferulic acid protects neurons from oxidative stress by inhibiting the activation of p38 MAPK, caspase-3, and COX-2 (Graf, 1992), and by downregulating damage caused by the MEK/ERK/p90RSK signaling pathway (Lin et al., 2015)

The liver, which is the main organ for drug metabolism, is at a particular risk of adverse effects with respect to herbal and nutraceutical agents subject to extensive hepatic biotransformation or induction/inhibition of cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes (212)

Neurochem Int 60:573580 Burma NE, Leduc-Pessah H, Trang T (2017) Genetic deletion of microglial Panx1 attenuates morphine withdrawal, but not analgesic tolerance or hyperalgesia in mice

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